We all
have watershed moments in life, critical turning points where, from
that moment on, nothing will ever be the same. One such moment in my
own life came when I rediscovered the word elohim.
It was
in church on a Sunday morning while still in graduate school. I was
chatting with a friend who, like me, was working on a PhD in Hebrew
studies, killing a few minutes before the service started. I don’t
recall much of the conversation, though I’m sure it was something
about Old Testament theology. But I’ll never forget how it ended.
My friend handed me his Hebrew Bible, open to Psalm 82. He said
simply, “Here, read that . . . look at it closely.”
The
first verse hit me like a bolt of lightning:
God
[elohim] stands in the divine assembly;
he administers judgment in
the midst of the gods [elohim].
I’ve
indicated the Hebrew wording that caught my eye and put my heart in
my throat. The word elohim occurs twice in this short verse. Other
than the covenant name, Yahweh, it’s the most common word in the
Old Testament for God.
The
first use of the word in this verse worked fine. But since I knew my
Hebrew grammar, I saw immediately that the second instance needed to
be translated as plural. There it was, plain as day: The God of the
Old Testament was part of an assembly—a pantheon—of other gods.
Does
the Bible say there are other gods?
Needless
to say, I didn’t hear a word of the sermon. My mind was reeling.
How was it possible that I’d never seen that before? I’d read
through the Bible seven or eight times. I’d been to seminary. I’d
studied Hebrew. I’d taught for five years at a Bible college.
What
did this do to my theology? I’d always thought—and had taught my
students—that any other “gods” referenced in the Bible were
just idols. As easy and comfortable as that explanation was, it
didn’t make sense here. The God of Israel isn’t part of a group
of idols. But I couldn’t picture him running around with other real
gods, either. This was the Bible, not Greek mythology.
But
there it was in black and white. The text had me by the throat, and I
couldn’t shake free.
I
immediately set to work trying to find answers. I soon discovered
that the ground I was exploring was a place where evangelicals had
feared to tread. The explanations I found from evangelical scholars
were disturbingly weak, mostly maintaining that the gods (elohim) in
the verse were just men—Jewish elders—or that the verse was about
the Trinity. I knew neither of those could be correct.
Psalm
82 states that the gods were being condemned as corrupt in their
administration of the nations of the earth. The Bible nowhere teaches
that God appointed a council of Jewish elders to rule over foreign
nations, and God certainly wouldn’t be railing against the rest of
the Trinity, Jesus and the Spirit, for being corrupt. Frankly, the
answers just weren’t honest with the straightforward words in the
text of Psalm 82.
When I
looked beyond the world of evangelical scholarship, I discovered that
other scholars had churned out dozens of articles and books on Psalm
82 and Israelite religion. They’d left no stone unturned in
ferreting out parallels between the psalm and its ideas and the
literature of other civilizations of the biblical world—in some
cases, matching the psalm’s phrases word for word.
Their
research brought to light other biblical passages that echoed the
content of Psalm 82. I came to realize that most of what I’d been
taught about the unseen world in Bible college and seminary had been
filtered by English translations or derived from sources like
Milton’s Paradise Lost.
The
rulers of ancient Egypt were called pharaohs. In the language of
ancient Egypt, the title was actually two words, per a-a, which meant
“great house(hold).” The household concept for the ruling
families of ancient Egypt was that of a dynastic bureaucracy.
Pharaohs typically had large, extended families. They frequently
appointed family members to key positions of authority in their
administration. The elite staffing of the king’s governing
bureaucracy typically came from Pharaoh’s household. They were
administrators, not lowly messengers.
This
concept and structure was well known throughout the ancient world. It
spoke of layered authority: a high king, elite administrators who
were often related to the king, and low-level personnel who served
the higher levels of authority. Everyone in the system was part of
the government, but authority and status were tiered.
Several
Old Testament passages describe this administrative structure
existing in the heavenly realm, as well. Psalm 82 is perhaps the
clearest—and perhaps the most startling. The psalm refers to
Yahweh’s administration as a council. The first verse reads:
God
(elohim) stands in the divine assembly;
he administers judgment in
the midst of the gods (elohim).
You no
doubt noticed that the word elohim occurs twice in this verse. You
also probably recognize elohim as one of God’s names, despite the
fact that the form of the word is plural. In English we make words
plural by adding -s or -es or -ies (rats, horses, stories). In
Hebrew, plurals of masculine nouns end with -im.
While
the word elohim is plural in form, its meaning can be either plural
or singular. Most often (over 2,000 times) in the Hebrew Bible it is
singular, referring to the God of Israel. We have words like this in
English.
For
example, the word sheep can be either singular or plural. When we see
“sheep” by itself, we don’t know if we should think of one
sheep or a flock of sheep. If we put “sheep” into a sentence
(“The sheep is lost”), we know that only one sheep is meant since
the verb requires a singular subject. Likewise, “The sheep are
lost” informs us that the status of more than one sheep is being
discussed. Grammar guides us. It’s the same with Hebrew.
Psalm
82:1 is especially interesting since elohim occurs twice in that
single verse. In Psalm 82:1, the first elohim must be singular, since
the Hebrew grammar has the word as the subject of a singular verbal
form (“stands”). The second elohim must be plural, since the
preposition in front of it (“in the midst of”) requires more than
one. You can’t be “in the midst of” one. The preposition calls
for a group—as does the earlier noun, assembly. The meaning of the
verse is inescapable: the singular elohim of Israel presides over an
assembly of elohim.
A
quick read of Psalm 82 informs us that God has called this council
meeting to judge the elohim for corrupt rule of the nations. Verse 6
of the psalm declares that these elohim are sons of God. God says to
them:
I
have said, “You are gods [elohim],
and sons of the Most High
[beney elyon], all of you.
To a
biblical writer, the Most High (elyon) was the God of Israel. The Old
Testament refers to him as Most High in several places (e.g., Gen.
14:18–22; Num. 24:16; Pss. 7:17; 18:13; 47:2). The sons of God/the
Most High here are clearly called elohim, as the pronoun “you” in
verse 6 is a plural form in the Hebrew.
The
text is not clear whether all of the elohim are under judgment or
just some. The idea of elohim ruling the nations under God’s
authority is a biblical concept that is described in some detail in
The Unseen Realm:
Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible.
For now, it’s sufficient that you see clearly that the sons of God
are divine beings under the authority of the God of Israel.
You
see why the psalm threw me for a loop. The first verse has God
presiding over an assembly of gods. Doesn’t that sound like a
pantheon—something we associate with polytheism and mythology?
For
that very reason, many English translations obscure the Hebrew in
this verse. For example, the NASB translates it as: “God takes His
stand in His own congregation; He judges in the midst of the rulers.”
There’s
no need to camouflage what the Hebrew text says. People shouldn’t
be protected from the Bible. The biblical writers weren’t
polytheists. But since Psalm 82 generates questions and controversy,
we need to spend some time on what it teaches and what it doesn’t
teach, along with other passages that inform us about the divine
council.
Many
Christians who object to the plain meaning of the Hebrew text of
Psalm 82 assert that this psalm is actually describing God the Father
speaking to the other members of the Trinity. This view results in
heresy.
I’m
confident you can see why—the psalm has God judging the other
elohim for corruption. The corrupt elohim are sentenced to die like
humans.
These
observations alone should make any Christian who cares about the
doctrine of God abandon this idea. It has other flaws. The end of the
psalm makes it evident that the elohim being chastised were given
some sort of authority over the nations of the earth, a task at which
they failed. This doesn’t fit the Trinity.
Other
Christians who see the problems with this first idea try to argue
that the sons of God are human beings—Jews to be specific. Some
Jewish readers (who obviously would not be Trinitarian) also favor
this view.
This
“human view” is as flawed as the Trinitarian view. At no point in
the Old Testament does Scripture teach that Jews or Jewish leaders
were put in authority over the other nations. The opposite is
true—they were to be separate from other nations. The covenant with
Abraham presupposed this separation: if Israel was wholly devoted to
Yahweh, other nations would be blessed (Gen. 12:1–3). Humans are
also not by nature disembodied. The word elohim is a “place of
residence” term. Our home is the world of embodiment; elohim by
nature inhabit the spiritual world.
The
real problem with the human view, though, is that it cannot be
reconciled with other references in the Hebrew Old Testament that
refer to a divine council of elohim. Psalm 89:5–7 explicitly
contradicts the notion of a divine council in which the elohim are
humans.
And
so the heavens will praise your wonderful deed, O Yahweh,
even
your faithfulness, in the assembly of the holy ones.
For who in
the sky is equal to Yahweh?
Who is like Yahweh among the sons of
God,
a God feared greatly in the council of the holy ones,
and
awesome above all surrounding him?
God’s
divine council is an assembly in the heavens, not on earth. The
language is unmistakable. This is precisely what we’d expect if we
understand the elohim to be divine beings. It is utter nonsense if we
think of them as humans. There is no reference in Scripture to a
council of human beings serving Yahweh in the skies (Jews or
otherwise).
What
Psalms 82 and 89 describe is completely consistent with what we see
in Job 38:7—a group of heavenly sons of God. It also accords
perfectly with other references to the sons of God as plural elohim:
The
sons of God came to present themselves before Yahweh. (Job 1:6;2:1)
Ascribe
to Yahweh, O sons of God,
ascribe to Yahweh glory and
strength.
Ascribe to Yahweh the glory due his name (Psalm 29:1–2).
Do
these references describe a group of Jewish leaders, among whom (in
the passage from Job) Yahweh’s great adversary appears, leading to
Job’s suffering? The conclusion is obvious. Did Judaism evolve into
a monotheistic religion?
Many
scholars believe that Psalm 82 and other passages demonstrate that
the religion of ancient Israel began as a polytheistic system and
then evolved into monotheism. I reject that idea, along with any
other explanations that seek to hide the plain reading of the text.
In all such cases, the thinking is misguided. The problem is rooted
in a mistaken notion of what exactly the word elohim means.
Since
elohim is so often translated as “God,” we look at the Hebrew
word the same way we look at capitalized G-o-d. When we see the word
“God,” we instinctively think of a divine being with a unique set
of attributes—omnipresence, omnipotence, sovereignty, and so on.
But this is not how a biblical writer thought about the term.
Biblical authors did not assign a specific set of attributes to the
word elohim. That is evident when we observe how they used the word.
The
biblical writers refer to a half-dozen different entities with the
word elohim. By any religious accounting, the attributes of those
entities are not equal.
Yahweh,
the God of Israel (thousands of times—e.g., Gen. 2:4–5; Deut.
4:35)
The
members of Yahweh’s council (Psa. 82:1,6)
Gods
and goddesses of other nations (Judg. 11:24; 1 Kgs. 11:33)
Demons
(Hebrew: shedim—Deut. 32:17)
The
deceased Samuel (1 Sam. 28:13)
Angels
or the Angel of Yahweh (Gen. 35:7)
The
importance of this list can be summarized with one question: Would
any Israelite, especially a biblical writer, really believe that the
deceased human dead and demons are on the same level as Yahweh? No.
The
usage of the term elohim by biblical writers tells us very clearly
that the term is not about a set of attributes. Even though when we
see “G-o-d” we think of a unique set of attributes, when a
biblical writer wrote elohim, he wasn’t thinking that way. If he
were, he’d never have used the term elohim to describe anything but
Yahweh.
Consequently,
there is no warrant for concluding that plural elohim produces a
pantheon of interchangeable deities. There is no basis for concluding
that the biblical writers would have viewed Yahweh as no better than
another elohim. A biblical writer would not have presumed that Yahweh
could be defeated on any given day by another elohim, or that another
elohim (why not any of them?) had the same set of attributes. That is
polytheistic thinking. It is not the biblical picture.
We can
be confident that Yahweh stands above the elohim by once again
observing what the biblical writers say about him—and never say
about another elohim. The biblical writers speak of Yahweh in ways
that telegraph their belief in his uniqueness and incomparability:
“Who
is like you among the gods [elim], Yahweh?” (Exod. 15:11)
“‘What
god [el] is there in the heaven or on the earth who can do according
to your works and according to your mighty deeds?’ ” (Deut.
3:24)
“O
Yahweh, God of Israel, there is no god [elohim] like you in the
heavens above or on the earth beneath” (1 Kgs. 8:23).
“For
you, O Yahweh, are most high over all the earth. You are highly
exalted above all gods [elohim]” (Psalm 97:9).
Biblical
writers also assign unique qualities to Yahweh. Yahweh is:
All-powerful
(Jer. 32:17, 27; Pss. 72:18; 115:3)
Sovereign
king over the other elohim (Psa. 95:3; Dan. 4:35; 1 Kgs. 22:19)
Creator
of the other members of his host-council (Psa. 148:1–5; Neh. 9:6;
cf. Job 38:7; Deut. 4:19–20; 17:3; 29:25–26; 32:17; Jas. 1:17)
The
lone elohim who deserves worship from the other elohim (Psa. 29:1).
In
fact, Nehemiah 9:6 explicitly declares that Yahweh is unique—there
is only one Yahweh (“You alone are Yahweh”).
The
biblical use of elohim is not hard to understand once we know that it
isn’t about attributes. What all the figures on the list have in
common is that they are inhabitants of the spiritual world. In that
realm there is hierarchy.
For
example, Yahweh possesses superior attributes with respect to all
elohim. But God’s attributes aren’t what makes him an elohim,
since inferior beings are members of that same group. The Old
Testament writers understood that Yahweh was an elohim—but no other
elohim was Yahweh. He was species-unique among all residents of the
spiritual world.
This
is not to say that an elohim could not interact with the human world.
The Bible makes it clear that divine beings can (and did) assume
physical human form, and even corporeal flesh, for interaction with
people, but that is not their normal estate. Spiritual beings are
“spirits” (1 Kgs. 22:19–22; John 4:24; Heb. 1:14; Rev. 1:4). In
like manner, humans can be transported to the divine realm (e.g.,
Isa. 6), but that is not our normal plane of existence. As I
explained earlier, the word elohim is a “place of residence”
term. It has nothing to do with a specific set of attributes.
Those
who want to avoid the clarity of Psalm 82 argue that the gods are
only idols. As such, they aren’t real. This argument is flatly
contradicted by Scripture. It’s also illogical and shows a
misunderstanding of the rationale of idolatry.
With
respect to Scripture, one need look no further than Deuteronomy
32:17:
“They
[the Israelites] sacrificed to demons [shedim], not God [eloah], to
gods [elohim] whom they had not known.”
The
verse explicitly calls the elohim that the Israelites perversely
worshiped demons (shedim). This rarely used term (Deut. 32:17; Psa.
106:37) comes from the Akkadian shedu. In the ancient Near East, the
term shedu was neutral; it could speak of a good or malevolent spirit
being.
These
Akkadian figures were often cast as guardians or protective entities,
though the term was also used to describe the life force of a person.
In the context of Deuteronomy 32:17, shedim were elohim—spirit
beings guarding foreign territory—who must not be worshiped.
Israel
was supposed to worship her own God (here, eloah; cf. Deut. 29:25).
One cannot deny the reality of the elohim/shedim in Deuteronomy 32:17
without denying the reality of demons. Scholars disagree over what
kind of entity the shedim were. But whatever the correct
understanding of shedim might be, they are not pieces of wood or
stone.
Scholars
of Paul’s first letter to the Corinthians know that in the
apostle’s warning to not have fellowship with demons (1 Cor.
10:20), Paul’s comments follow the history of the Israelites
described in Deuteronomy 32. He warns believers against fellowship
with demons on the basis of Israel’s failure in worshiping other
gods. Paul uses the word daimonion, one of the words used frequently
in the New Testament for evil spiritual beings, to translate shedim
in Deuteronomy 32:17. Paul knew his Hebrew Bible and didn’t deny
the reality of the shedim, who are elohim.
by
Michael S. Heiser at logos.com on July 20, 2021